President James Madison
Like his close friend Thomas Jefferson, James Madison came from a prosperous family of Virginia planters, received an excellent education, studied law -- though only informally -- and quickly found himself drawn into the debates over independence. In 1776, he became a delegate to the revolutionary Virginia Convention, where he worked closely with Thomas Jefferson to push through religious freedom statutes, among other liberal measures. The youngest member of the Continental Congress, Madison was of smaller than average height for a Virginian of the period; reports have him standing either five feet four or five feet six inches tall. His soft-spoken, shy demeanor was a foil for his brilliant persistence in advocating his political agenda. Madison emerged as a respected leader of the Congress, known for his hard work and careful preparation.
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Believing that the Articles of Confederation rendered the new Republic subject to foreign attack and domestic turmoil, James Madison helped set the wheels in motion for a national convention to draft the young nation's constitution. Madison led the Virginia delegation to the Philadelphia meeting, which began on May 14, 1787, and supported the cry for General Washington to chair the meeting. Madison's Virginia Plan became the blueprint for the Constitution that finally emerged, later earning him the revered title "Father of the Constitution."
Elected to the House of Representatives in 1789, Madison served as Washington's chief supporter. In this capacity, he introduced the Bill of Rights, a constitutional guarantee of civil liberties, thereby fulfilling a promise to the Virginia Ratifying Convention of 1788. During John Adams's presidency, Madison led the Republican fight against the Alien and Sedition Acts, which attempted to quell Republican opposition to Federalist foreign policy toward France. He authored the Virginia Resolution, which declared the laws unconstitutional. Under Thomas Jefferson, Madison served as secretary of state, supporting the Louisiana Purchase and the embargo against Britain and France.
Under Thomas Jefferson, Madison served as secretary of state, supporting the Louisiana Purchase and the embargo against Britain and France. Indeed, Madison was the official primarily responsible for the administration's foreign policy, emerging from behind the scenes in 1808 to succeed Jefferson as the fourth President of the United States.
It was not at all clear that Madison would carry the day. Jefferson's embargo of all trade with England and France had devastated the nation, and New England states spoke of open secession from the Union. The Federalists, convinced they would ride national outrage to victory, renominated their 1804 contender, Charles C. Pinckney of South Carolina. Meanwhile, George Clinton, who had agreed to run as Madison's vice president, consented to his own nomination for President. Madison swamped the opposition, winning 122 votes to Pinckney's 44. His reelection was also dramatic. Madison's nomination for a second term came just fifteen days prior to his war message to Congress, listing American grievances against Britain. Congress voted the United States into the War of 1812, largely guaranteeing Madison's reelection.
The War of 1812 amounted to a second war of independence for the new Republic and helped to unify the President's party. Much of the War of 1812 centered on bloody battles against the Native American tribes that were aided by the British. In 1814, the British took the nation's new capital, torching the White House and other federal buildings. They were finally defeated at the epic Battle of New Orleans by General Andrew Jackson's ragtag army, many of whom were volunteers, including free blacks and slaves and nearly 1,000 French pirates. Although Madison escaped capture, the victories against Tecumseh and at New Orleans revitalized the nation and earned him the esteem of his constituents. Madison's critics, who organized the Hartford Convention to protest his policies, looked like traitors to the victorious nation, and their antiwar criticism further weakened the Federalist Party.
Everyone was shocked when the shy and reticent James Madison announced his marriage to the vivacious Dolley Payne Todd, who became one of the most popular and vibrant first ladies ever to grace the White House. Dolley Madison was already familiar with her role in Washington since she had occasionally played the role of hostess during the Jefferson administration. A beautiful woman who liked to party and to show off her impressive figure, Dolley Madison quickly earned a reputation among conservatives and political enemies, who criticized her for gambling, wearing makeup, and using tobacco. Dolley was deeply hurt by such tales but was gratified to keep her popularity and public acclaim long after her husband had left office.
Despite Madison's popularity and his outstanding achievements, he has traditionally been misjudged in the past as a less-than-spectacular President. Recently, however, historians have begun to pay more attention to Madison, seeing his handling of the war as similar to Lincoln's wartime management. Madison's government marshaled resources, faced down secessionist threats from New England, and proved to the British the folly of fighting wars with the Americans. He helped to establish respect for American rights on the high seas and emerged from the war with more popular support than he had when he was first inaugurated in 1808. Additionally, when considering the fact that he ended up on the winning side of every important issue that faced the young nation from 1776 to 1816, Madison was the most successful and possibly the most influential of all the Founding Fathers.